This article appeared in the December 2020 issue of CAPCA Adviser Magazine. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 23:60-67. The most commonly used copper products are Copper hydroxides due to their high level of disease control and plant safety. Isolates of Erwinia amylovora with a slightly increased tolerance of copper were reported in British Columbia (Sholberg et al 2001) but it was expected that copper-based products would still be effective against fire blight. Copper Use in AgricultureThe history of copper being used in agriculture dates back to the 1880s, when a French scientist, Pierre-Marie Alexis Millardet, noticed that vines that came in contact with a copper sulfate pentahydrate and lime mixture were free of Downy mildew.
Xanthomonas spp. Dhanucop (Copper Oxychloride 50% WP) is a copper based broad spectrum fungicide which controls the fungal as well as bacterial diseases by its contact action. Copper Ammonium Carbonate (Copper-Count-N). 2018 Oct 10;18(1):222. doi: 10.1186/s12870-018-1445-8. Phytophthora infestans: populations, pathogenicity and phenylamides. Teviotdale, B.T., Michailides, T.J., and Pscheidt, J.W. Ge T, Gao W, Liang C, Han C, Wang Y, Xu Q, Wang Q. Minimizing accumulation is a goal of label changes with copper re-registration. Dupuis B, Rolot JL, Stilmant D, Labbe V, Laguesse L. Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci. 2018 Dhanuka Agritech Ltd. All rights reserved. Crop protection 42:1-9. A combination of broad spectrum of activity, ability to withstand frequent wet weather events and inexpensive cost makes this group of compounds valuable in pest management programs. 2002. 2008. Low solubility in water of fixed copper active ingredients contributes to residual activity. There are few non-copper-based fungicides with activity for bacteria (e.g. Bordeaux cannot be mixed ahead of use because it deteriorates on standing. The active ingredient in all copper-based formulations is the positively charged copper ion (Cu+2). The label lists precautions similar to those of other copper-based pesticides to prevent phytotoxicity with pH and copper sensitive crops. BMC Plant Biol. 
Stockwell, V., Shaffer, B., Bennett, R., Lee, J., and Loper, J. Copper-based pesticides may have more than one active ingredient (such as Badge) and some are registered for the home garden (such as Liqui-cop). Most products express the amount of copper they contain in terms of copper metallic equivalents. OSU Extension. (field bean, kidney, lima, navy, and pinto), Control of Some Common Aquatic Weeds with Herbicides, Treated Water Use Restrictions (Number of Days), Effectiveness of Major Forestry-registered Herbicides during Seasons of Optimum Usage, Oregon Basis, Herbicide Recommendations for Control of Listed Species, Recommendations for Broadcast Spraying for Control of Listed Species, Hybrid Cottonwood (Hybrid Poplar) Grown for Pulp, Vegetation Management in Orchards, Vineyards, and Berries, Blueberry, Gooseberry, Currant, and Elderberry, Important Preharvest Intervals (PHIs) for Vegetables, Site Preparation, Stale Seedbeds, and Directed Nonselective Applications, Crop Rotation Intervals (months) for Common Soil-active Herbicides, Herbicide Effectiveness in Christmas Trees, Weed Control in Container-grown Nursery Stock, Weed Control in Field-grown Nursery Stock, Ornamental Bulb, Rhizome, Corm, and Tuber Crops, Established Tree, Shrub, Rose, and Ground Cover Landscapes, Bulb, Flower Beds, and Native Wildflowers, General Maintenance around Ornamental Plantings, Weed Treatments and Available Products for Home Gardens and Landscapes, Managing Unwanted Vegetation in Riparian Restoration Sites, What to Do in Case of Pesticide Poisoning, Personal Protective Equipment Definitions, Cleaning, Recycling, and Disposing of Agricultural Pesticide Containers, Disposing of Unusable Pesticides and Agricultural, Household and Residential Pesticide Products, Pesticides, Endangered Species, and Mandatory No-spray Buffer Zones, Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides, Minimum Personal Protective Equipment and Work Clothing for Handling Activities. Assessment of retention and persistence of copper fungicides on orange fruit and leaves using fluorometry and copper residue analyses. When sprayed onto plants the ammonia evaporates leaving a long lasting residue of copper carbonate, basic copper sulfate and/or copper hydroxide (Thomson 2000). 2018). Millardet, a French viticulturist during the mid-1800s, noticed less grape downy mildew on vines close to the road while walking through a vineyard one day (Klittich 2008).
Chlorothalonil and manzate also have low resistance risk. Any reference to commercial products, trade or brand names is for information only; no endorsement is intended. Provides Copper nutrition to crop. Additionally, excellent control of olive leaf spot was reported but copper in any formulation also resulted in excellent control when disease pressure was low (Teviotdale et al 1989). 2006 Feb;62(2):162-70. doi: 10.1002/ps.1142. Agricultural Chemicals, book IV - Fungicides. Sholberg, P.L., Bedford, K.E., Haag, P., and Randall, P. 2001. 2022 Certis USA L.L.C.9145 Guilford Road, Suite 175Columbia, MD 21046 U.S.A.1-800-250-5024, Copper and Mancozeb: Reliable Tools in Agricultural Production, This article appeared in the December 2020 issue of CAPCA Adviser Magazine. 
syringae. The ingredients must be mixed in the right order and with mechanical agitation of the tank to avoid the formation of a sprayer clogging precipitate. Relative Disease Susceptibility and Sensitivity to Sulfur, Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)-Tomato Varietal Resistance to Fusarium Wilt and/or Crown and Root Rot, Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)-Varietal Resistance, Diagnosis and Management of Phytophthora Diseases, APHIS List of Regulated Hosts and Plants Proven or Associated with Phytophthora ramorum, Plants Resistant or Susceptible to Armillaria Root Rot, Verticillium Wilt in the Pacific Northwest, Plants Resistant or Susceptible to Verticillium Wilt, Plants Susceptible to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Potential Impact of Cyanobacteria on Crop Plants, Management of the Cyanobacterium Nostoc in Horticultural Nurseries, Care and Maintenance of Wood Shingle and Shake Roofs, Winter Injury of Landscape Plants in the Pacific Northwest, Recognizing Sapsucker Damage on your Trees, Key to Nutrient Deficiencies in Vegetable Crops, Key to Nutrient Deficiencies of Deciduous Fruit and Nuts, Current Status of Biological Weed Control Agents in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, Biological Control Agents and Their Roles, Restricted-use Herbicides in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, Testing for and Deactivating Herbicide Residues, Herbicide Effectiveness on Weeds in Grass Seed Crops, Dry Bean East of the Cascades - Phaseolus spp. that harvest can be done; however, the REI for Worker Protection Standard affects harvest as harvesting by workers isnt allowed as a WPS early- entry provision, so harvesting during a restricted-entry interval is not allowed.
These formulated materials are about as effective for disease management as Bordeaux without the mixing problems. Many of these are weedy plants found growing in extreme and/or tropical environments. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of different copper oxychloride levels on potato plants through some biochemical and physiological parameters.
Several technological advancements have occurred over the years within copper hydroxide products. Copper fungicides also differ in other ways.
MCE can also be important, especially when other factors are similar for products, but a goal of modern product development is an effective product with low MCE. Plant disease, 104:724-730. 2008. Crop Protection 98:8-15. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/copper, Emerging Insect Pests in the Pacific Northwest, Brown Marmorated Stink Bug: An Emerging Threat to Pacific Northwest Agriculture, Spotted-wing Drosophila: An Emerging Berry and Stone Fruit Pest, How to Reduce Bee Poisoning from Pesticides, Horticultural, Landscape, and Ornamental Crops, Field Characteristics of Fruit-Tree-Attacking Spider Mites in the Pacific Northwest, Pests of Cabbage and Mustard Grown for Seed, Pests of Rutabaga and Turnip Grown for Seed, Biology and Control of the Garden Symphylan, Bean, Dry Cultivar Resistance to Bean Common Mosaic, Grape (Vitis spp.) The specific directions on fungicide labels must be adhered to. Copper fungicides differ in their active ingredient, use rate, re-entry interval, pre-harvest interval, and the amount of copper as well as cost. 1996. mtm3@cornell.edu, 2021 Cornell University. Using a brush, the grower had splashed a concoction from a bowl onto the outside row of grapes to prevent people from pilfering his grapes. On the other hand, low pH of the spray solution, which can be affected by the leaf surface, increases copper solubility and thus availability of copper ions, which is essentially the active ingredient. Additionally, spray coverage will improve due to there being more particles per unit weight. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Concomitantly, there was a negative correlation between lipoperoxide levels and LAR and RGR. Pseudomonas syringae isolates resistant to copper have been found on many crops in the PNW including fruits such as blueberry and pear and ornamentals such as euonymus, forsythia, lilac, maple, mock orange, mountain ash, Oregon grape, Otto Luyken laurel, sweetgum (Liquidambar sp. Copper Hydroxide (Champion, Kocide, Nu-Cop, Previsto and many others). Ninot, A., Alet, N., Moragrega, C. and Montesinos, E. 2002.
Copper kills spores by combining with sulphahydral groups of certain enzymes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. Copyright 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. The crystalline copper particles adhere to the surface of the plant to provide a protective barrier. A review. Evaluation of a reduced copper spraying program to control bacterial blight of walnut. Cueva was not effective against eastern filbert blight while other copper products generally resulted in good control. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 38:28 doi.org/10.1007/s13593-018-0503-9. Read label warnings carefully to avoid these situations. Copper-based active ingredients in other products include copper ammonium complex (Copper Count-N), copper hydroxide (Champion, Kocide, Nu-Cop, etc.
Copper ions are more soluble at low pH so when copper pennies are found in acidic soils (right side of image) they may be in various stages of decay. government site. 
soil fumigants fumigant suppliers manufacturers https://sites.science.oregonstate.edu/bpp/Plant_Clinic/Fungicidebooklet/ Fungicide Theory of Use and Mode of Action, Fungicide Resistance and Fungicide Groups, Fungicides, Bactericides, and Nematicides, Biofungicides and Plant Activators Registered in Oregon, Materials Allowed for Organic Disease Management, Fungicidal Activity and Nutritional Value of Phosphorous Acid, Fungicides for Disease Management in the Home Landscape, Treating Irrigation Water to Eliminate Water Molds, Use of Disinfestants to Control Plant Pathogens. https://sites.science.oregonstate.edu/bpp/Plant_Clinic/Fungicidebooklet/ Renick, L.J., Cogal, A.G., and Sundin, G.W. Rarely tested in the PNW, but has been used to significantly enhance pea emergence as a seed treatment. Mixtures of copper and maneb and Mancozeb for control of bacterial spot of tomato and their compatibility for control of fungus diseases. Chemical analysis of Bordeaux mixture found that one of the products produced was copper hydroxide (Lamichhane et al. Spores actively accumulate copper and thus germination of spores is inhibited, even at lower concentrations. These products include ManKocide for agricultural and seed treatment use and Junction for ornamental and turf use. Stevenson, K.L., McGrath, M.T., and Wyenandt, C.A. However, cupric fungicides have been utilized in the control of Alternaria solani and Phytophthora infestans fungi, which cause early blight and late blight in potato, respectively. Bordeaux mixture, made by adding copper sulfate and calcium hydroxide to water, was one of the first fungicides ever used. Several are also used for medicinal purposes in traditional cultures such as a widely cultivated herb from IndiaOcimum tenuiflorum, as well as Waltheria indica and Clerodendrum infortunatum. Phytopathology, 83:1460-1465. Almost all copper fungicides have a fixed copper as the active ingredient, with copper hydroxide being the most common. Formulated as Copper-Count-N, the label allows application to a wide variety of crops for management of many different diseases. Linus Pauling Institute. 2021 Sep 22;12:717258. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2021.717258. Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section These products can be used on fewer crops, due to the restrictions on mancozeb rather than the copper hydroxide. Schutte, G.C., Kotze, C., van Zyl, J.G., and Fourie, P.H. It works as a protectant by disrupting core enzymatic processes within fungal cells, resulting in inhibiting spore germination within fungal pathogens on the plant surface. Disclosures under Regulation 46 of the LODR. Additional benefits of using the combination of two active ingredients with multi-site modes of action helps to broaden the spectrum, reduce disease inoculum and incidence, and enhance resistance management. Copper oxychloride is a slightly larger particle with a slower, more prolonged release of copper ions. PHI = Pre-harvest interval. 1993. Generally it is used as a dormant spray because it may burn young juvenile tissues. FOIA juglandis. Enhancement of natural disease resistance in potatoes by chemicals. Copper mining bacteria: Converting toxic copper ions into a stable single-atom copper. Phenotypic and genetic analysis of epiphytic Pseudomonas syringae populations from sweet cherry in Michigan. This information is on the label in the ingredient section. REI = Re-entry interval. Bordeaux has many positive and negative features. eCollection 2021. Copper ions kill by denaturing proteins and enzymes in cells of pathogens they contact that have not yet infected the plant. Antioxidant enzymes; Copper toxicity; Lipoperoxides; Productivity; Solanum tuberosum ssp tuberosum L.. 4-Ethylphenol, A Volatile Organic Compound Produced by Disease-Resistant Soybean, Is a Potential Botanical Agrochemical Against Oomycetes.
Ge, Q., Cobine, P. A. and De La Fuente, L. 2020. Prez-Rodrguez P, Paradelo M, Rodrguez-Salgado I, Fernndez-Calvio D, Lpez-Periago JE. When copper-based pesticides are tank mixed with acidic compounds more copper ion may be released, which can lead to phytotoxicity. Copper and Mancozeb are among the most widely used bactericides and fungicides in agricultural production, providing growers with reliable control of a broad range of bacterial and fungal diseases across a wide array of crops. The concentration of copper was so low that it did not inhibit the xylem inhabiting pathogenic bacteria Xylella fastidiosa. With good application coverage, Bordeaux sticks well to plant surfaces and does not need additional adjuvants added to the mix. These advancements allow for increased levels of bioavailable copper on a per pound basis and lower use rates per acre. Badge products contain both of these active ingredients with the goal of extending disease control. The lower copper ion release helped reduce phytotoxicity (russeting) in fire blight control trials in semi-arid Washington but have shown some risk of russeting in wetter areas of Oregon and California. Copper oxide has been described as the most effective form of copper. Unfortunately, bacterial pathogens may adapt to the new, increased concentration of copper ion generated with this strategy. Andreu AB, Guevara MG, Wolski EA, Daleo GR, Caldiz DO. The site is secure. 
Conover, R.A., and Gerhold, R.R. Copper oxychloride is a green to blue-green compound used for disease control. Copper. Restrictions on copper-based pesticide use have been implemented in many areas of the world and is advisable for the PNW. Plant Health Progress doi:10.1094/PHP-2008-0418-01-RV. Use of a liquid formulation of copper hydroxide (Kocide LF) resulted in fewer free copper ions and more bacterial blight on lilacs than dry formulations (Kocide DF or 101). The same small amounts of copper are not toxic to plants or humans. Nordox formulation is tiny hollow micro-beads. Copper supplementation in watering solution reaches the xylem but does not protect tobacco plants against Xylella fastidiosa infection.
Characterization of Pseudomonas syringae from blueberry fields in Oregon and Washington. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Klittich, C. J. There are claims that some products have particularly good ability to mix and to stick to plants, which means good rainfastness (weatherability). Bluestone which is copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO2) disassociates in water releasing a high concentration of copper ions. Cueva contains copper octanoate, which is a blue material that can be used in the organic production of many crops. Long Island Horticultural Research and Extension Center (LIHREC) In general, dry formulations of copper-based pesticides have resulted in better fungal and bacterial disease control than liquid formulations in trials conducted in western Oregon. This overview of copper-based pesticides will cover Bordeaux mixture, copper sulfate, along with many other forms of copper and resistance of some bacterial pathogens to these materials. Copper is important for the formation of red blood cells, activity of antioxidant enzymes and assists with the formation and maintenance of connective tissues in the human body (Higdon et al 2013). Examples of fixed coppers are: Copper hydroxide, Copper oxide, Copper sulfate basic, Copper oxychloride sulfate, Copper oxychloride and Copper octanoate. 2019 Dhanuka Agritech Ltd. All rights reserved. A few trials in California found 50% control of peach leaf curl and grape powdery mildew using Nordox. Badge is composed of both copper oxychloride and copper hydroxide. Lange, B., van der Ent, A., Baker, A. J. M., Echevarria, G., Mahy, G., Malaisse, F., Meerts, P., Pourret, O., Verbruggen, N. and Faucon, M. P. 2017. 2018).
Metallic copper equivalent (MCE) is a commonly used measure of the quantity of copper in fungicides. Copper because of its strong bonding affinity to amino acids and carboxyl groups, reacts with protein and acts as an enzyme inhibitor in target organisms. New Phytologist, 213:537-551. Plant Disease, 92:372-378. Dhanucop due to less solubility, gradually releases copper ions, thereby it controls the disease for a longer period. Science Advances, 7, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abd9210, Higdon, J., Drake, V. J., and Delage, B. You can read the original, Healthy Soil, Healthy Crops: How to Make Soil Health A Priority, Overcoming Challenges to Increase Tree Nut Yield, 3 Ways to Implement IPM for Fire Blight in Orchards. oxychloride fungicide copper wg fungicides category The results revealed that superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) protected plants against oxidative stress at the beginning of the cycle since lipoperoxide levels were low in that period. Information about some copper fungicides including their highest label rate for some vegetable cropsz. Copper sulfate is considered more toxic to native bees than other coppers. This mixture produces a copper carbamate, which is more effective than the copper hydroxide alone. Front Plant Sci. 2000. Pest Manag Sci. Use of copper-based bactericides also has been known to increase disease as in the case of bacterial canker of sweet cherry (Pscheidt and Cacka 2009). Actigard). Teviotdale, B., Sibbett, G., and Harper, D. 1989. Pome fruit russeting can occur with applications of copper-based bactericides, but less russet was reported with Previsto used in arid production areas. More than one copper fungicide has been tested in some evaluations, mostly on bacterial diseases. Several products contain a fixed copper sulfate and may list the active ingredient as basic copper sulfate (Cuprofix) or copper sulfate pentahydrate (CS 2005, Mastercop, Instill, Phyton 27). Milestones in fungicide discovery: chemistry that changed agriculture. Provides thickness to leaves and hence preferred by the farmers. Very high Suspensibility and smallest particle size. 2002 Sep;58(9):944-50. doi: 10.1002/ps.527. For example, many copper-based products suggest to add a superior-type oil to help break the surface tension of water for better coverage on the target crop. Formulations of Kocide without an O in the name are not OMRI-listed. Read label warnings carefully to avoid damage to crops. (It gave the grapes an unappealing taste and look.) Lamichhane, J.R., Osdaghi, E., Behlau, F., Khl, J., Jones, J.B. and Aubertot, J.N., 2018. Some products may have a trade name that sounds or looks like Bordeaux such as Bordeux but this product actually contains tribasic copper sulfate. J Ginseng Res.
Products with neutral pH (e.g. 2019. Nordox 75 has the highest MCE (75%). St. Paul, MN:APS Press. Many products contain the active ingredient copper hydroxide including Champion, Kocide, Nu-Cop, Previsto and many others. B., Perpetuo, E. A., do Nascimento, C. A. O., Hashiguchi, H., Juliano, M. A., Hernandez, F. C. R. and Rodrigues, D. F. 2021. These products can be used on a wide variety of crops to manage bacterial and fungal diseases. California Agriculture 43:30-31. St. Paul, MN:APS Press. At the extreme are copper resistant bacteria (Bacillus sp. Scheck and Pscheidt 1998 found several formulations of 50% metallic copper produced a wide range of copper ion in solution. Copper at moderate to high doses may be toxic to plants. This activity has never been proven (Lamichhane et al. Cueva was as effective as Kocide 3000 for black rot in cabbage in New York in 2011 and 2012 but not in 2013 when Champ and Cuprofix Ultra Disperss were also more effective than Cueva. z MCE = Metallic copper equivalent. phaseolicola, the pathogen of halo blight on snap bean. Neither were effective for either disease in similar experiment in 2014. The root to shoot translation factor, however, is very low. Sci Rep. 2017 Mar 15;7:44554. doi: 10.1038/srep44554. Jay W. Pscheidt, Extension Plant Pathology Specialist, OSU. With small particles there is more surface area and thus potential to release more copper ions. It is a broad-spectrum contact fungicide with protective action. Although copper pesticides are one of the oldest class of fungicides (FRAC group M1), they are still used for management of many different diseases today (see this handbook). Spray adjuvants such as LI-700, phosphorous acid fungicides in particular Aliette, and mancozeb fungicides all lower pH. Zhang, S., Fu, Y., Mersha, Z., and Pernezny, K. 2017. However, additional studies are needed in order to reduce the use of copper fungicides in the control of early and late blight in potato crop production, then decreasing the release of copper in the environment. Ideal fungicide during hailstorms/ rains. After several EBDCs were introduced over the next 25 years, a zinc ion (zineb) and manganese ethylene bisdithiocarbamate (maneb) were combined to form Mancozeb, which was introduced into agricultural production as a standalone product in 1962 and has since been the most prominent EBDC used. Margaret Tuttle McGrath 2013. Plants take up some copper from soil because it is a micronutrient. Pest Manag Sci. Here is a printer-friendly .pdf version of this factsheet. In an interesting side note, there were very few mentions of fungal resistance to copper-based products in a book devoted to fungicide resistance. calcium deficiency squashes You can read the original here. 2020). Mancozeb is FRAC M:03 fungicide, which represents fungicides that have multi-site activity. The .gov means its official. Some new copper formulations have highly micronized and chelated coppers. The material sticks to and remains active on plant surfaces even during typical wet PNW winters. To prevent fruit marking of cherry, applications are only allowed during and prior to bloom or after harvest. Many organisms are sensitive to very small amounts of copper ion, such as bacteria and fungi but especially aquatic organisms such as algae or water molds (including pathogens like downy mildews). Formulations of copper hydroxide can vary considerably in the amount of free copper ion found in solution and the degree of effective disease control (Scheck and Pscheidt 1998). Copper and Mancozeb are commonly used to control a number of diseases across a variety of crops, including: Growers are encountering new challenges daily in todays dynamic agricultural environment; and, while new solutions are being introduced and offered, its good to know that they have a proven, trusted and reliable pairing ready to be incorporated into their IPM programs with Copper and Mancozeb. To determine amount of MCE applied with an application, multiply percent MCE for the product by the use rate in lbs for dry formulations and for liquid formulations multiple lbs MCE in a gallon of product by the use rate in gal (see table).
It is a highly effective bactericide and fungicide that is used to manage several plant diseases. 1998. In lilac tissue culture, C-O-C-S resulted in 80% control of copper sensitive isolates of Pseudomonas syringae but only 27% control of copper resistant bacteria (Scheck and Pscheidt 1998). Although copper is widely distributed in the foods we eat, copper toxicity is rare. Copper and streptomycin resistance in strains of Pseudomonas syringae from Pacific Northwest nurseries.
Rate also varies with crop. Metallic Copper Equivalent (MCE) also varies across copper products; however, it should be noted that several technological advancements allow for the aforementioned variances to be more of an indicator to performance, as opposed to simply viewing products containing a higher MCE as better performing.
Studies in California found Copper-Count-N resulted in 72% control of walnut blight. By Jeremy Adamson, Product Manager, Certis Biologicals. This blue mixture is still used today to manage downy mildew in France and many other areas of the world. Small particle size is best because these adhere better to plant surfaces and are more difficult to dislodge by water than large particles. These products have helped to maximize copper efficiency on the foliage of the plant, while lowering the environmental impact of copper yet providing outstanding disease control. Acidic conditions result in a higher concentration of copper ion. As the copper comes in contact with water, bioavailable Cu++ ions are released to protect against fungal and bacterial infections. A formulation of copper hydroxide suspended in an alginate matrix (Previsto) has been effective against several diseases such as fire blight of pome fruit while using less overall copper. Good (fast) drying conditions are important to avoid fruit russet risk. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Improved control of bacterial spot of tomato, halo blight of beans, or walnut blight have been reported from applying a mixture of copper hydroxide and the fungicides maneb or mancozeb (Conover and Gerhold 1981, Teviotdale et al 2002, Zhang et al 2017). Fresno, CA: Thomson Publications. There are many different copper-based pesticides and formulations. The fungicide was applied at the recommended level (2.50gL(-1)), at a reduced level (1.25gL(-1)), and at 5.00gL(-1), to simulate spraying in the field twice during the same period with the recommended level. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. The product C-O-C-S is composed of both copper oxychloride and basic copper sulfate. Fungicide Resistance in North America, Second Edition.
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